All I want to be is a high school math teacher. Why do I have to take Real Analysis?

In 2012, the Conference Board for the Mathematical Sciences published The Mathematical Education of Teachers II, providing recommendations for how universities prepare future teachers at all grade levels. From Chapter 6 of this report, here are the recommendations for future secondary teachers:

This report recommends that the mathematics courses taken by prospective high school teachers include at least a three-course calculus sequence, an introductory statistics course, an introductory linear algebra course, and 18 additional semester-hours of advanced mathematics, including 9 semester-hours explicitly focused on high school mathematics from an advanced standpoint. It is desirable to have a further 9 semester-hours of mathematics…

The report then goes on to describe how advanced mathematics courses that emphasize theorems and proofs, such as abstract algebra, real analysis, group theory, and number theory, are directly relevant for teaching the secondary mathematics curriculum.

In my experience, most math majors who want to be high school math teachers understand why they have to take calculus, statistics, linear algebra, and math courses specifically designed for their future career. But a perennial question that they often ask is, “Why do I have to take theorem-proof math classes if all I want to do is teach high school math?” Some years ago, I wrote the following document for my students to address this issue, which hopefully provide some good reasons for why these more abstract courses are required.

1. A central goal of theorem-proof courses (and subsequent courses) is to emphasize that mathematics is not only an exercise in quantitative skills; it is also an exercise in explaining why the rules of mathematics work the way they do. After you become a teacher, that’s also something that you can impress upon your students — not only the “how” of solving problems but also the “why.”

Through all of the “proof” classes, you will learn that the real purpose of math is not to be able to perform arithmetic, solve for $x$ , or even to be able to find the area under the curve. Rather, it is to be able to think logically, to reach a logical solution on well-defined terms, and to be able to problem-solve. So many of today’s youth do not encompass any of these qualities and/or abilities; when you think about it, that is a very scary thought! So when you become a teacher and are asked the inevitable questions “Why do I need to know (fill in a math topic)? How is that going to help me in life?”, you will be prepared to respond. (But don’t be surprised when they don’t like your response!)

2. Theorem-proof courses are specified by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) and the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) as part of the national standard of best practices for preparing future high school math teachers. Furthermore, you will be responsible for the material in these classes when it’s time for you to take the TExES certification exam. All this to say, including these classes in the curriculum isn’t a requirement that somebody at our university thought was a bright idea; this is an “industry standard,” so to speak, for the preparation of highly qualified secondary math teachers.

3. Of course, simply saying “You have to do this because the ‘powers that be’ say that it’s good for you” may not be a terribly motivating reason for you to be in courses that emphasize mathematical abstraction. Another good reason to take these courses is because it’s always a good idea for teachers to be familiar with a few years’ worth of mathematics above the subject matter that they’re teaching. Right now, you probably expect (perhaps subconsciously) that your professor knows not only the content immediately pertinent to your class but also the content in subsequent classes, so that you’re prepared to take those subsequent classes if you elect to do so. The same logic will apply to you when you become a teacher yourself.

By analogy, UNT’s elementary teachers often complain, “Why do I have to take College Algebra if I’m only going to be teaching arithmetic?” Well, elementary students are learning algebra without the technical terms. For example: $3 + \fbox{~?~} = 8$ is a first-grade problem, and students will use the number line (or their fingers) to reach the conclusion that $\fbox{~?~} = 5$ . However, 6^th graders taking Pre-Algebra are replacing the box with the variable $x$ and now must show their work on why $x=5$ , which is a proof! Having taken theorem-proof courses will allow you, the teacher, to explain why we can add a $-3$ to both sides and it cancels out on one side and subtracts $3$ from the $8$ . Moreover, it explains that the minus sign just tells you which direction you are moving on the number line and why the word we came up with for that idea, subtraction, means “to take away, to go to the left.”

Ideally, elementary school teachers should teach their classes mindful of the fact that elementary school arithmetic is not a mere exercise in computation but part of a process of logical thinking that will be further developed in middle-school algebra. In the same way, when you become a secondary math teacher, you should be familiar with the topics that lie beyond algebra, geometry, trigonometry, and calculus.

4. When you’re in your future classroom, you should be equipped to answer just about any mathematical question that comes your way. Someday, a bright and inquisitive student will ask you an honest question about some of the deeper concepts covered in the course that you’re teaching. Such questions typically start with “why” instead of “how.” For example:

“Why is the number $e$ irrational?”
“Why is the Pythagorean theorem correct?”
“Why can’t complex numbers be defined using $\sqrt{-2}$ instead of $\sqrt{-1}$ ?”
“Why are all of the hypotheses of the intermediate value theorem needed?”
“Why do the rows in Pascal’s triangle add to powers of $2$ ?”
“Why do polynomials have a unique factorization using linear terms involving complex numbers?”

High school teachers (and, if they’re honest, college professors) will tell you that it’s quite embarrassing to be unable to provide an immediate answer to a student’s question, no matter how difficult. It’s even worse if the teacher is at a complete and utter loss as to who or what to consult to provide the answer. Theorem-proof classes will hopefully provide you the framework to answer such questions.

5. Many of the concepts in real analysis are directly related to concepts taught below the level of calculus. To give a few examples from the first few chapters of our textbook:

Unions and intersections of sets are important for developing the rules for computing $P(A \cup B)$ , the probability that event $A$ happens or event $B$ happens, and $P(A \cap B)$ , the chance that $A$ and $B$ both happen.
Important examples of equivalence classes are those derived from congruences, a notion which leads to the familiar grade-school rules for testing for divisibility by $2$ , $3$ , $4$ , $5$ , $6$ , $8$ , $9$ , $10$ or $11$ .
The notion of an injective function explains why the horizontal line test works.
The axioms of ordered fields are the logical framework behind high school algebra, and for why the “FOIL” method is correct but the “distributive” property $(a+b)^2 = a^2 + b^2$ is incorrect.
The density of both rational and irrational numbers is often taken for granted by high school students without explanation.

6. Many theorems in calculus, which are typically stated without proof when actually teaching a calculus course, rely on notions from real analysis. In fact, a major goal of theorem-proof courses is to “dot the i’s and cross the t’s” of familiar theorems that are often stated in a calculus class but not always completely proved for students. Here’s a sampling:

The order of quantifiers is important for distinguishing between the continuous functions and uniformly continuous functions. The latter notion is necessary to formally prove that every continuous function has a definite integral on a closed interval, often taken for granted in Calculus I.
The notion of supremum and the completeness property of $\mathbb{R}$ underlie some important concepts in calculus, including the proof of the intermediate value theorem, the rigorous definition of a definite integral, and the proof that the definite integral of the sum of two functions equals the sum of the two definite integrals.
Many optimization problems in calculus rely on the fact that continuous functions assume both an absolute minimum and absolute maximum value on any closed interval. The proof of this theorem relies on properties of closed sets and compact sets.
The proof that the composition of two continuous functions is continuous (and also the proof of the Chain Rule for differentiation) relies on properties of open sets.
Limit theorems that are often taken for granted in calculus may be proven using limit theorems about sequences.
The Mean Value Theorem (from Calculus I) is derived from the fact that limits preserve inequalities. Many important properties of calculus, including L’Hopital’s Rule, indefinite integration, curve sketching, and Taylor series, are direct consequences of the Mean Value Theorem.
The Root and Ratio Tests from Calculus II are derived using the notions of limsup and liminf.

Hopefully, while you’re still in college, you will begin the process of making connections between the topics that you will directly teach your students and the topics that your students will see after they graduate from high school. This may not fully sink in until you begin student teaching; only then will you realize the importance of being able to prove something (i.e. teaching a topic in a logical manner) when you are trying to explain it to inquiring minds.

As a student taking real analysis or abstract algebra, it’s easy to lose sight of the forest for all of the trees. That is, it’s easy to simply develop your skills in abstraction and theorem-proving without realizing that the topics you’re learning are indeed relevant to your future career as a mathematics educator. Teach North Texas and the UNT Math Department both wish you well as you continue through our degree program.

The Simpsons and math

I recently came the following article concerning the mathematical jokes that can be found in various episodes of the Simpsons: http://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2013/sep/22/the-simpsons-secret-formula-maths-simon-singh.

For a more detailed listing of mathematical references, I highly recommend http://www.simpsonsmath.com (or http://mathsci2.appstate.edu/~sjg/simpsonsmath/), maintained by Dr. Sarah J. Greenwald of Appalachian State University and Dr. Andrew Nestler of Santa Monica College. I’ve used the “r dr r” joke in my calculus class many times, and each time it was a hit.

Collaborative Mathematics: Challenge 07

My colleague Jason Ermer has posted his 7th challenge video, shown below. It’s both an experiment and an exercise in probability.

Video responses can be posted to his website, http://www.collaborativemathematics.org. In the words of his website, this is a unique forum for connecting a worldwide community of mathematical problem-solvers, and I think these unorthodox but simply stated problems are a fun way for engaging students with the mathematical curriculum.

Engaging students: Volume and surface area of pyramids and cones

In my capstone class for future secondary math teachers, I ask my students to come up with ideas for engaging their students with different topics in the secondary mathematics curriculum. In other words, the point of the assignment was not to devise a full-blown lesson plan on this topic. Instead, I asked my students to think about three different ways of getting their students interested in the topic in the first place.

I plan to share some of the best of these ideas on this blog (after asking my students’ permission, of course).

This student submission comes from my former student Angel Pacheco. His topic, from Geometry: finding the volume and surface area of pyramids and cones.

How has this topic appeared in high culture (art, classical music, theatre, etc.)?

Show an example of the pyramid of Giza, give them dimensions of the pyramid as well as the dimensions of the blocks that were used to build it and have the students guess how many blocks it took to build it. The students can use this as a competitive edge to want to get the correct answer. Students will have to solve for the surface area of the pyramid and the area of the face of the block. There can also be an example where I will tell the students if the pyramid was fill of blocks and they’re given the dimensions of the pyramid and block. They then find the volume of both to determine how many blocks can fill in the pyramid.

I will then show an image of a Greek amphitheater and explain how it resembles a cone. I will give them dimensions of a Greek amphitheater and have them find the surface area and the volume of cone if the amphitheater was folded into a cylinder.

How can this topic be used in your students’ future courses in mathematics or science?

Students will be reintroduce to the volume of a cone in multivariable calculus when they learn about triple integrals and the different forms of integrals, like Cartesian, Polar, and Spherical coordinates. Surface Area and Volume of both the shapes will be seen in architectural engineering whenever they come across an assignment or job that requires them to find how big the cone or pyramid is in their draft of a monument or building.

This topic can also assist the students in their Geometry class in high school as well as college level. In mathematics, it’s better if there is a stronger foundation build in the early ages. When students face volume and surface area of pyramids and cones, they will gain more knowledge of the concept as time progresses. It’s always good to start early. Talking to students about different shapes and their areas and volumes gives them perspective in geometry.

How have different cultures throughout time used this topic in their society?

In Ancient Greece, there were famous scientists that contained vast amount of knowledge. For example, Thales of Miletus and Democritus were some of the scientists that used surface area and volumes of cones and pyramids. Democritus was one of the first to observe that cones and square pyramids were one third of the volume of a cylinder and prism, respectively if they have similar measurements. I would use this as an engagement because Greek mythology is pretty popular. This could be used to show students that the math they are doing today is similar to the math that was done in the past, ancient past.

In Ancient Egypt, square pyramids were used to create the famous pyramids of Egypt such as the Pyramid of Giza. Pyramids were used to idolize their kings. The Mayan Indians also used pyramids to idolize their leaders. Bringing up different examples of different cultures that talk about the shapes they see in class then it can grab their attention. The link below is a lesson that talks about surface area and volume of cones and pyramids. It seems as an effective tool to assess students if they understand the concepts of SA and Volume.

Source: http://www.cordonline.net/cci_bridges_pdfs/Bridges12_12-5.pdf

Engaging students: Distinguishing between axioms, postulates, theorems, and corollaries

I plan to share some of the best of these ideas on this blog (after asking my students’ permission, of course).

This student submission comes from my former student Roderick Motes. His topic, from Geometry: distinguishing between axioms, postulates, theorems, and corollaries.

How could you as a teacher create an activity or project that involves your topic?

This topic lends itself well to projects, and to activities. Axiom systems are fundamental to the study of math. In high school geometry in particular we start to ask students to do proofs. When students begins proofs it’s important that we define what we’re working with. All students know definitions, these tell us what the objects ARE. Postulates and Axioms tell us the most basic rules of how an object behaves.

There are various options you can use to communicate the differences here. My suggestion would be to take an interesting, visual, and intuitive problem and find the simplest rule set you can. Find the rules from which you can easily (though not trivially) solve the question. Take for example the Seven Bridges of Konnisburg. The website http://www.mathsisfun.com/activity/seven-bridges-konigsberg.html has a GREAT activity based around the Seven Bridges problem. Towards the middle, after the initial exploration, the activity introduces some vocabulary central to the student of graphs. The definitions are, as Euclid would have them, definitions. The activity then assumes some things implicitly:

“A path leads into a vertex by one edge and out of the vertex by a second edge.”

This is an example of an axiom.

With careful choice of activity you can distinguish between theorem and corollary. In geometry in particular we can use the theorem that opposite angles are congruent to quickly prove that the sum of the angles when a line cuts another is 4 right angles. This is a quick corollary, and so the difference between corollary and theorem could be shown AS PART OF an activity you already have.

So there are really two places that you can fit this. Adapting an explore will allow you to quickly demonstrate the difference between theorem and corollary. Having students prove solutions from axioms is another method of showing everything.

Below I have included several axiom systems you could fit in. Euclids Elements defines Euclidean Geometry, and so whenever you are proving something from there you could consider adapting your activity to require proof from axioms and prior proofs.

Peano axiomatized the basics of number theory. You could potentially adapt this if you’re teaching middle school, but that would be more tricky. Alligator Eggs is a GREAT manipulative for advanced high school students who are going to be taking computer science around the same time. Alligator eggs has cut outs, colors, gives definitions, and shows the axiomatic assumptions of typed lambda calculus in a greatly intuitive way (chomp chomp chomp.)

http://worrydream.com/AlligatorEggs/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axiomatic_system#Example:_The_Peano_axiomatization_of_natural_numbers

http://aleph0.clarku.edu/~djoyce/java/elements/elements.html

What interesting things can you say about the people who contributed to the discovery and/or the development of this topic?

The axiomatic method took us a while to work the kinks out of and, accordingly, it’s history is rife with interesting figures. We can start at the beginnings with Euclid though, to be fair to those before him, his work built upon the works of the Pythagoreans, Plato, and Theaetetus (the first two of which have countless fun asides you can discuss.) Euclid wrote down his ‘postulates and common notions’ and proceeded to build up Euclidean Geometry from them. Euclid is a rather mysterious figure for all we know about him. He is alleged to have published many books. Interestingly he is thought to have published the book “Music: Elements of Music” in which he extends on the Pythagoreans musings on the connection between intervals in music, and mathematics.

After the Greeks the seat of mathematical progress moved to the Middle East. During this time many mathematicians would continue to use the axiomatic method of Euclid, but none doubted his own axioms save for a few. Among these men was one Omar Al-Khayyam. Al-Khayyam raised some objections to Euclids use of the 5^th postulate (the parallel postulate.) This same objection would later be noted and used as the basis for the study of non-euclidean geometries. Outside of mathematics Al-Khayyam was an interesting man. He was a poet as well as a mathematician, philosopher, and astronomer. Quite interesting he was brazen enough to publish the idea that the year was actually 365.24219858156 days. I say it was a brazen idea because the degree to which he was claiming accuracy was more or less unheard of for astronomical calculations at the time. What’s amazing is how right he was. His calculation is accurate to the sixth decimal place which, we now know, actually varies naturally. It would be like someone coming into a room and telling you that you are 5.62536412 feet tall based on their calculations and then having them be correct.

After Al-Khayyam the next most notable figures in the refinement of the axiomatic method are probably Hilbert, who refined Euclids axiom system, Whitehead and Russell (who tried and failed to axiomatize ALL of mathematics,) and Cantor. A quick search on the internet will pull up many many interesting facts, but here are some of my favorites:

“David Hilbert used to have a garden attached to his house, with a chalkboard allowing him to do research out in the fresh air. Reportedly, he would stand at the board working for periods of time, but would occasionally, without warning, hop onto his bicycle, make a circuit or two of the garden’s path, then just as abruptly hop off and return to his chalkboard.”
“Bertrand Russell (British mathematician) – reported in print as having died in 1937, had to have his obituary reprinted when he actually died in 1970.”

Cantor is particularly interesting, I think, since his mathematics earned him such admonition as a “scientific charlatan”, a “renegade” and a “corrupter of youth.” It wasn’t until the tail end of his life, having been driven to fits of madness and depression, that he finally started to be realized as one of the great mathematicians, and his set theory to be one of mathematics crowning achievements.

Sources:

Math Through the Ages
http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Euclid.aspx
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Khayyam

How does this topic extend what your students should have learned in previous courses?

Axiomatic methods can be used to prove everything is true (well… mostly. Incompleteness Theorem throws a wrench into the works but is well beyond the scope of a high school course.) Have the students ever wondered why we factorize things into primes? Or wondered how any of the mechanical routines they’ve learned (like synthetic division) can be justified or proven? If so, then they’ve been looking for the same kind of path that we’ve taken all throughout Math 4050.

We take some simple basic principles about numbers, and show that they have complex consequences. Moreover we show that we can extend these principles to many different areas. In geometry in particular we can give geometric, visual, intuitive ideas some very rigorous backing. Moreover much of Euclids Elements gives us an intuition for algebra without explicitly using it. Consider when Euclid proves Pythagorean Theorem. Nowadays we say a²+ b²= c². But Euclid actually proves it by showing that the area of a square with side A, plus the area of a square with side B sum to the area of a square with sides C. He takes the literal square of the sides, and shows they are equal. This is a very interesting way you could discuss these points, and connect back with your students.

Are complex numbers complex?

It’s an unfortunate fact of history that numbers of the form $a+bi$ are called complex numbers. In modern English, of course, the word complex is usually associated with phrases like difficult, inscrutable, time-consuming, hard to solve, and other negative connotations that teachers would prefer to not introduce into a math class.

However, my understanding is that the other meaning of the word complex was in mind when the term complex numbers was coined. After all, in modern English, we still refer to a group of buildings as an apartment complex or maybe an office complex. In this sense, complex means two (or more) things that are joined together to form a single unit, which is precisely what happens as the real part $a$ and the imaginary part $bi$ are joined to form $a + bi$ . Indeed, my understanding is that complex was chosen to be the opposite of simplex, or a single unit (like a real number).

Anyway, hopefully this bit of history can make complex numbers less mystifying for students.

While I’m on the topic, the word imaginary was another unfortunate choice of words by our ancestors, but — like complex — we’re just stuck with it.

Also while I’m on the topic, this is a good chance to review a great piece of showmanship about teaching complex numbers:

Engaging students: Vectors in two dimensions

I plan to share some of the best of these ideas on this blog (after asking my students’ permission, of course).

This student submission comes from my former student Derek Skipworth. His topic, from Precalculus: vectors in two dimensions.

A. How could you as a teacher create an activity or project that involves your topic?

While it may be a cop-out to use this example since I am developing it for an actual lesson plan, I will go ahead and use it because I feel it is a strong activity. I am developing a series of 21 problems that will be the base for forming the students’ treasure maps. There will be three jobs: Cartographer, the map maker; Lie Detector, who checks for orthogonality; and Calculator, who will solve the vector problems. The 21 problems will be broken down into 7 per page, and the students will switch jobs after each page. The rule is that any vectors that are orthogonal with each other cannot be included in your map. There are three of these on each page, so each group should end up with a total of 12 vectors on their map. Once orthogonality is checked by the Lie Detector, the Calculator will do the expressed operations on the vector pairs to come up with the vector to be drawn. The map maker will then draw the vector, as well as the object the vector leads to. Each group will have their directions in different orders so that every group has their own unique map. The idea is for the students to realize (if they checked orthogonality correctly) that, even though every map is different, the sum of all vectors still leads you to the same place, regardless of order.

B. How does this topic extend what your students should have learned in previous courses?

Vectors build upon many topics from previous courses. For one, it teaches the student to use the Cartesian plane in a new way than they have done previously. Vectors can be expressed in terms of force in the $x$ and $y$ directions, which result in a representation very similar to an ordered pair. It gets expanded to teach the students that unlike an ordered pair, which represents a distinct point in space, a vector pair represents a specific force that can originate from any point on the Cartesian Plane.

Vectors also build on previous knowledge of triangles. When written as $\langle x,y \rangle$ , we can find the magnitude of the vector by using the Pythagorean Theorem. It gives them a working example of when this theorem can be applied on objects other than triangles. It also reinforces the students trigonometry skills since the direction of a vector can also be expressed using magnitude and angles.

E. How can technology be used to effectively engage students with this topic?

The PhET website has one of the best tools I’ve seen for basic knowledge of two dimensional vector addition, located at http://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/vector-addition. This is a java-based program that lets you add multiple vectors (shown in red) in any direction or magnitude you want to get the sum of the vectors (shown in green). Also shown at the top of the program is the magnitude and angle of the vector, as well as its corresponding $x$ and $y$ values.

What’s great about this program is it puts the power in the student’s hands. They are not forced to draw multiple sets of vectors themselves. Instead, they can quickly throw them in the program and manipulate them without any hassle. This effectively allows the teacher to cover the topic quicker and more effectively due to the decreased amount of time needed to combine all vectors on a graph.

Full lesson plan: Modular multiplication and encryption

Over the summer, I occasionally teach a small summer math class for my daughter and her friends around my dining room table. Mostly to preserve the memory for future years… and to provide a resource to my friends who wonder what their children are learning… I’ll write up the best of these lesson plans in full detail.

In this lesson, the students practiced their skills with multiplication and division to create modular multiplication tables. Though this is a concept ordinarily first encountered in an undergraduate class in number theory or abstract algebra, there’s absolutely no reason why elementary students who’ve mastered multiplication can’t do this exercise. This exercise strengthens the notion of dividing with a remainder and leads to a fun application with encrypting and decrypting secret messages. Indeed, this activity made be viewed as a child-appropriate version of the RSA encryption algorithm that’s used every time we use our credit cards. This was mentioned in two past posts: https://meangreenmath.com/2013/10/17/engaging-students-finding-prime-factorizations and https://meangreenmath.com/2013/07/11/cryptography-as-a-teaching-tool

This lesson plan is written in a 5E format — engage, explore, explain, elaborate, evaluate — which promotes inquiry-based learning and fosters student engagement.

Lesson Plan: Kid RSA Lesson

Why 0^0 is undefined

Here’s an explanation for why $0^0$ is undefined that should be within the grasp of pre-algebra students:

Part 1.

What is $0^3$ ? Of course, it’s $0$ .
What is $0^2$ ? Again, $0$ .
What is $0^1$ ? Again, $0$ .
What is $0^{1/2}$ , or $\sqrt{0}$ ? Again, $0$ .
What is $0^{1/3}$ , or $\sqrt[3]{0}$ ? In other words, what number, when cubed, is $0$ ? Again, $0$ .
What is $0^{1/10}$ , or $\sqrt[10]{0}$ ? In other words, what number, when raised to the 10th power, is $0$ . Again, $0$ .

So as the exponent gets closer to $0$ , the answer remains $0$ . So, from this perspective, it looks like $0^0$ ought to be equal to $0$ .

Part 2.

What is $3^0$ . Of course, it’s $1$ .
What is $2^0$ . Again, $1$ .
What is $1^0$ . Again, $1$ .
What is $\left( \displaystyle \frac{1}{2} \right)^0$ ? Again, $1$
What is $\left( \displaystyle \frac{1}{3} \right)^0$ . Again, $1$
What is $\left( \displaystyle \frac{1}{10} \right)^0$ ? Again, $1$

So as the base gets closer to $0$ , the answer remains $1$ . So, from this perspective, it looks like $0^0$ ought to be equal to $1$ .

In conclusion: looking at it one way, $0^0$ should be defined to be $0$ . From another perspective, $0^0$ should be defined to be $1$ .

Of course, we can’t define a number to be two different things! So we’ll just say that $0^0$ is undefined — just like dividing by $0$ is undefined — rather than pretend that $0^0$ switches between two different values.

Here’s a more technical explanation about why $0^0$ is an indeterminate form, using calculus.

Part 1. As before,

$\displaystyle \lim_{x \to 0^+} 0^x = \lim_{x \to 0^+} 0 = 0$ .

The first equality is true because, inside of the limit, $x$ is permitted to get close to $0$ but cannot actually equal $0$ , and there’s no ambiguity about $0^x = 0$ if $x >0$ . (Naturally, $0^x$ is undefined if $x < 0$ .)

The second equality is true because the limit of a constant is the constant.

Part 2. As before,

$\displaystyle \lim_{x \to 0} x^0 = \lim_{x \to 0} 1 = 1$ .

Once again, the first equality is true because, inside of the limit, $x$ is permitted to get close to $0$ but cannot actually equal $0$ , and there’s no ambiguity about $x^0 = 1$ if $x \ne 0$ .

As before, the answers from Parts 1 and 2 are different. But wait, there’s more…

Part 3. Here’s another way that $0^0$ can be considered, just to give us a headache. Let’s evaluate

$\displaystyle \lim_{x \to 0^+} x^{1/\ln x}$

Clearly, the base tends to $0$ as $x \to 0$ . Also, $\ln x \to \infty$ as $x \to 0^+$ , so that $\displaystyle \frac{1}{\ln x} \to 0$ as $x \to 0^+$ . In other words, this limit has the indeterminate form $0^0$ .

To evaluate this limit, let’s take a logarithm under the limit:

$\displaystyle \lim_{x \to 0^+} \ln x^{1/\ln x} = \displaystyle \lim_{x \to 0^+} \frac{1}{\ln x} \cdot \ln x$

$\displaystyle \lim_{x \to 0^+} \ln x^{1/\ln x} = \displaystyle \lim_{x \to 0^+} 1$

$\displaystyle \lim_{x \to 0^+} \ln x^{1/\ln x} = 1$

Therefore, without the extra logarithm,

$\displaystyle \lim_{x \to 0^+} x^{1/\ln x} = e^1 = e$

Part 4. It gets even better. Let $k$ be any positive real number. By the same logic as above,

$\displaystyle \lim_{x \to 0^+} x^{\ln k/\ln x} = e^{\ln k} = k$

So, for any $k \ge 0$ , we can find a function $f(x)$ of the indeterminate form $0^0$ so that $\displaystyle f(x) = k$ .

In other words, we could justify defining $0^0$ to be any nonnegative number. Clearly, it’s better instead to simply say that $0^0$ is undefined.

P.S. I don’t know if it’s possible to have an indeterminate form of $0^0$ where the answer is either negative or infinite. I tend to doubt it, but I’m not sure.

Engaging students: Solving linear systems of equations by either substitution or graphing

I plan to share some of the best of these ideas on this blog (after asking my students’ permission, of course).

This student submission comes from my former student Angel Pacheco. His topic, from Algebra II: solving linear systems of equations by either substitution or graphing.

How has this topic appeared in pop culture (movies, TV, current music, video games, etc.)?

Westerville South High School (WSHS) is located in Westerville, Ohio. In 2010, the math department of WSHS worked together with their students to create parodies of popular rap songs about particular mathematical topics. They have made a Facebook page as well as their own account for YouTube. This is a great idea because it uses websites that are popular among the students. In one of their recent videos, it is called All I Do is Solve, which is the parody of ‘All I Do is Win’ by DJ Khaled. This video has been constructed really well. It contains three ways to solve systems of equations, which are graphing, substitution, and elimination.

This video will be a great tool for an Engagement as well as right before the Evaluation. The sound of it being a famous rap song will certainly grab the interest of all students. I, personally, am not a big fan of rap but when I saw this video I could not stop watching it. It was really entertaining. A lot of teachers can gain a lot of ideas from this type of teaching.

What interesting things can you say about the people who contributed to the discovery and/or the development of this topic?

There are a lot things to say. There are a lot of different cultures that had their own procedure or different perspective to this topic. I found a website called History of Math. In early 200 BC, there are sections in an ancient China text called the ‘Jiuzhang suanshu’ that contains examples of linear equations. This is a selection from the text:

One pint of good wine costs 50 gold pieces, while one pint of poor wine costs 10. Two pints of wine are bought for 30 gold pieces. How much of each kind of wine was bought?

The solution of this problem is used by using systems of linear equations. I can use this example as well as other examples from the different cultures. I will primarily use this as an Engagement. I will begin to ask the class, “Do any of you know how long solving systems of equations has been around?” “Do you know who discovered this concept?” Using these questions to get them interested, I will use the website to inform the different contributions that each culture made.

Source(s): http://hom.wikidot.com/cramer-s-method-and-cramer-s-paradox

How could you as a teacher create an activity or project that involves your topic?

I will create a project based activity that requires the students to work in groups of 3-4. The students will each have their own role: Gate Keeper, Focus Keeper, Analyst, and Encourager. The link below will be to the website that describes the same roles and the same project. Each students will have to learn the material to complete the project on their own, but they will not do it by themselves. The group complete it by itself.

The project consists of the real life scenario that their parent(s) have decided not to pay for their cell phone bill so they have a $50 limit per month so they must research the different options they have with different service providers. They will create a system of linear equations and they must be able to solve the systems of linear equations by the three methods: graphing, substitution, and elimination. This will allow for students to work together as well by themselves on an activity that is exciting. The students will be required to present their results at the end of the project. The project will turn to be an interdisciplinary lesson with systems of equations.

Source(s): The image below is a copy of the layout of the roles and project.